The Pāli term attha (artha in Sanskrit) has many meanings, viz., profit, advantage, prosperity, welfare, well-being, and success. Generally speaking, the word ‘attha’ as success relates to the various aspects of man’s social and economic development -- such as the economy, politics, education, health, law, and morality of society. It refers to economic development and social progress due to the harmonious unification of all the above factors and it contributes to the peaceful co-existence and prosperity of a people.
Another term pertaining to the socio-economic progress of man is found in our Pāli canonical texts, that is, ‘Atthacariya’, which means useful behavior, profitable behavior, and socio-economic environment of man. ‘Atthacariya’ is, according to the Sigalovada Sutta, one of the four characteristics of sympathy (sangaha vatthus).
The four characteristics of sympathy are:
Dāna - charity, generosity
Peyyavajja - kind speech
Atthacariya - useful economic behavior
Samanatatta - feeling of common good (sensus communis).
These four benevolent practices are very necessary for the survival of a just society. These are, according to the Sigalovada Sutta, like the lynchpin of a moving carriage and therefore Atthacariya, or useful economic behavior may be considered to be a very significant characteristic of a well organized society.
B.G. Gokhale emphatically points out the significance of the term ‘attha’ and says, “It is also used to imply economic or worldly gain and a philosophy of welfare in the world.” The Jātaka literature declares that there are six means or ’doors’ - dvara to ‘Attha’, namely, good health, virtuousness, seeking the advice of elders, learning scriptures, conforming to truth, and non-attachment. It is very clear that the Jātaka stories encourage the seeking of attha through morality, teaching how to behave for socio-economic benefit.
From very early times, ‘artha’ (Sanskrit) has been regarded as one of the four Brahmanical ideals (puruṣārtha), the other three being kāma (gratification of desire), dharma (discharge of duty), and mokṣa (final emancipation). In this connection, artha is understood to stand for material prosperity and well-being, particularly wealth. The Sanskrit term artha has many meanings, viz., advantage, utility, wealth, substance, property, use, opulence and money. In the great Indian epic Mahabhārata, it is mentioned as one of the aims of the state. The promotion of artha was to encourage trade, industry, and agriculture by developing natural resources, by bringing fresh land under cultivation, by building new dams and new canals to make agriculture independent of rain, and by encouraging extensive and systematic working of mines.
It seems that there is an inter-relatedness between attha and dhamma (material well-being and righteousness). Without attha, dhamma cannot exist; without dhamma, attha is useless and destructive to society. Attha without dhamma leads to the fear of losing wealth, and leads to envy, pride, arrogance, and misuse of wealth, resulting in neglect and abuse of others, all of which in turn result in conflict and aggression. Dhamma without attha produces individuals who cannot live up to and propagate ideals of Dhamma due to ill health, worry, helplessness, and lack of resources. In short, attha with dhamma produces stability and security in society.
It is to be noted here that in the Jātaka stories, we find that the major function of the ministers is to instruct the king in attha (material well-being) and dhamma (righteousness) which together cover the entire spectrum of law and royal duties (atthena dhammena anusasati). Therefore, it is very clear that the Pāli term attha stands for the economic and social welfare of human beings.
Fundamental Buddhist teachings may be divided into two parts, viz.,
- Basic Buddhist teachings -- (i.e., Four Noble Truths, Kamma, Nibbāna, Theory of Causality, Rebirth, etc.)
- Common secondary teachings -- (i.e., Socio-economic Philosophy, Political Philosophy, etc.)
Basic philosophical concepts pertain to the reality of man and his worldly and transcendental life, whereas secondary teachings mainly belong to the worldly life of man and society. It has to be mentioned here that secondary teachings pertaining to the social, economic, and political philosophy are scattered throughout the Pāli Canonical texts and their Commentaries.
It is true that there is no separate teaching of economics or politics among the Buddhist Canonical texts. But the socio-economic teachings that are found in the Buddhist Suttas heve eternal values. The Greek philosopher Plato wrote Republic and the ancient Indian political advisor Kauṭilya wrote Arthaśāstra. Plato’s Republic concerns only the contemporary social conditions of Greece. Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra is lacking in ethical and spiritual values. But Buddhist socio-economic philosophy is timeless and has no boundaries. It is mainly a socio-economic system that is founded on ethical and spiritual philosophy. If we examine the Buddhist Canon carefully, we find that there are ethical teachings which are pertaining to both micro-economics and macro-economics, but it must be mentioned here that Buddhist socio-economic teachings are given in their embryonic form.
Presenting a paper on Economics, Professor Glen Alexandrin says: “Today it seems, ethics is ignored and accounting is promoted.” When ethics are ignored, there are no humanitarian values. Then economics becomes a lopsided science that cannot be applied to modern man’s problems. Accounting does not give us a correct picture of political or socio-economic conditions, poverty or human feelings. According to traditional analysis, economics is a science of wealth, distribution and exchange. It gives priority to wealth, but it ignores the moral relationship between human beings and wealth. “Buddhist economics is an effort to return human values to economic activity in pursuit of maximum long-run benefit to society,” says Professor Alexandrin. When we lay our emphasis on ethical factors, Buddhist values are more important regarding socio-economic problems. Here, Buddhist economics can inject Buddha-element and dhamma-element into traditional economics, econometrics, and planning techniques. Further, Professor Glen Alexandrin says, “We call our new version of economics “Buddhist” because this adjective, as well as Buddhism itself, can be seen as universal."
E.F. Schumacher admires the ethical values of Buddhist Economics thus: “The keynote of Buddhist Economics ... is simplicity and non-violence. From an economist’s point of view, the marvel of the Buddhist way of life is the utter rationality of its pattern -- amazingly small means leading to extraordinary satisfactory results”
References:
- Pāli-English Dictionary, Rhys Davids and W. Stede, ed., Delhi, 1993.
- Dīgha Nikāya, Vol. III, Pāli Text Society, London, 1973.
- Jātaka with Commentary, V. Fausboll, ed., vol. 1, Pāli Text Society, London, 1990.
- Gokhale, B.G., “New Light on Early Buddhism,” Bombay, 1994.
- Pankaj, N.Q., “State and Religion in Ancient India,” New Delhi, 1983.
- Alexandrin, Glen and Barbara, “Ethical Planning,” Los Angeles, 1982.
- Dhammajoti, Rev. B. and Alexandrin, G., “Labor and Production in Buddhist Economics,” Eastem Economic Association, 13“ Annual Convention.